2.3
The popularization and dissemination of the Scientific Revolution and the application of its methods to political, social, and ethical issues led to an increased, although not unchallenged, emphasis on reason in European culture.
Rational and empirical thought challenged traditional values and ideas.
Intellectuals such as Voltaire and Diderot began to apply the principles of the scientific revolution to society and human institutions.
Locke and Rousseau developed new political models based on the concept of natural rights. Despite the principles of equality espoused by the Enlightenment and the French Revolution, intellectuals such as Rousseau offered new arguments for the exclusion of women from political life, which did not go unchallenged.
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New political and economic theories challenged absolutism and mercantilism.
Political theories, such as John Locke’s, conceived of society as composed of individuals driven by self-interest and argued that the state originated in the consent of the governed (i.e., a social contract) rather than in divine right or tradition.
Mercantilist theory and practice were challenged by new economic ideas, such as Adam Smith’s, espousing free trade and a free market.
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New public venues and print media popularized Enlightenment ideas.
A variety of institutions, such as salons, explored and disseminated Enlightenment culture.
Despite censorship, increasingly numerous and varied printed materials served a growing literate public and led to the development of “public opinion.”
Natural sciences, literature, and popular culture increasingly exposed Europeans to representations of peoples outside Europe. |
During the Enlightenment, the rational analysis of religious practices led to natural religion and the demand for religious toleration.
Intellectuals, including Voltaire and Diderot, developed new philosophies of deism, skepticism, and atheism.
Religion was viewed increasingly as a matter of private rather than public concern. By 1800 most governments had extended toleration to Christian minorities, and, in some states, civil equality to Jews. |
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The arts moved from the celebration of religious themes and royal power to an emphasis on private life and the public good. (Baroque to Neoclassical)
Mannerist and Baroque artists employed distortion, drama, and illusion in works commissioned by monarchies, city-states, and the church for public buildings to promote their stature and power.
Until about 1750, Baroque art and music promoted religious feeling and was employed by monarchs to glorify state power.
Artistic movements and literature also reflected the outlook and values of commercial and bourgeois society as well as new Enlightenment ideals of political power and citizenship. Dutch painting
Neoclassicsim
Literature that reflected commercial society or Enlightenment ideals
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While Enlightenment values dominated the world of European ideas, they were challenged by the revival of public sentiment and feeling. (Neoclassical to Romanticism)
Rousseau questioned the exclusive reliance on reason and emphasized the role of emotions in the moral improvement of self and society.
Revolution, war, and rebellion demonstrated the emotional power of mass politics and nationalism. Romanticism emerged as a challenge to Enlightenment rationality. |
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